For the production of hydrogen via water electrolysis, a mix of the three electrolysis technologies PEM-EL, AEC and HT-SOEC was assumed (see glossary). The average values of the three technologies were calculated for the energy and mass requirements shown below
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 4.8961e-5 TWh | 4.6021e-5 TWh | 4.4629e-5 TWh | 4.3237e-5 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 2.9147e-6 TWh | 2.9147e-6 TWh | 2.9147e-6 TWh | 2.9147e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.0000e+0 t | 1.0000e+0 t | 1.0000e+0 t | 1.0000e+0 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t |
Pichlmaier, S. and others (2021). Ökobilanzen synthetischer Kraftstoffe - Methodikleitfaden. Sonstiger Bericht. Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft e.V. (FfE).
In the methanol synthesis, the following reaction was used: CO₂ + 3 H₂ --> CH₃OH + H₂O.
The annual energy and mass requirements are listed below. The conversion of energy units (PJ) into mass units (kg) was done using the LHV of H₂ (120 MJ/kg).
The data for 2040 were calculated by linear interpolation.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.1528e-7 TWh | 2.5222e-7 TWh | 2.2069e-7 TWh | 1.8917e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | -5.6750e-7 TWh | -5.6750e-7 TWh | -5.6750e-7 TWh | -5.6750e-7 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 2.3084e-1 t | 2.2705e-1 t | 2.2516e-1 t | 2.2327e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.5890e+0 t | 1.5890e+0 t | 1.5890e+0 t | 1.5890e+0 t |
Detz, R., Methanol production from CO₂ (2019), https://energy.nl/wp-content/uploads/technology-factsheet-methanol-from-co2-7.pdf
For the FT reaction, a reverse water gas shift reaction was assumed initially (CO₂ + H₂ -> CO + H₂), with a conversion of 100 %. The hydrogen is provided by the water electrolysis implemented in the web tool.
Subsequently, a conversion of 88 % was assumed for the Fischer-Tropsch reaction (CO + H₂ -> CH₂ + H₂O).
The year-dependent energy and mass requirements are listed below. The conversion of energy units from PJ to kWh was adopted with LHV(FT fuel) = 43 MJ/kg; LHV (H₂) = 120 MJ/kg.
The development of the product requirements for Germany over time correspond to those published in Roadmap 4.0 of the Kopernikus project P2X.
Energy- and mass requirements:
Detz R.J., Technology Factsheet: Reverse Water Gas Shift-Reaktion to CO from CO2 and H2 (2019), https://energy.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Technology-Factsheets-RWGS-to-CO-from-CO2-and-H2-1.pdf; Detz R.J., Fischer-Tropsch fuel production (2019), https://energy.nl/data/fischer-tropsch-fuel-production/
For FT diesel, a Schulz-Flory distribution with a distribution coefficient of alpha = 0.85 was adopted. The following fractions with carbon chain lengths n are aggregated: 11-20.
This results in a diesel fraction of 33.7% for the overall FT crude. The energy and mass requirements listed below correspond to the FT crude.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 6.8015e-7 TWh | 6.1710e-7 TWh | 5.8558e-7 TWh | 5.5405e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | -2.1753e-6 TWh | -2.3014e-6 TWh | -2.4275e-6 TWh | -2.5535e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t |
Schulz-Flory-Distribution:
3rd Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II., ISBN: 978-3-89746-236-6
Dong, Z. and others (2017), Highly selective Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for C10-C20 diesel fuel under low pressure. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 95: 1537-1543. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.22812
For FT gasoline, a Schulz-Flory distribution with a distribution coefficient of alpha = 0.85 was adopted. The following fractions with carbon chain lengths n are aggregated: 5-11.
This results in a gasolene fraction of 34.3% for the overall FT crude. The energy and mass requirements listed below correspond to the FT crude.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 6.8015e-7 TWh | 6.1710e-7 TWh | 5.8558e-7 TWh | 5.5405e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | -2.1753e-6 TWh | -2.3014e-6 TWh | -2.4275e-6 TWh | -2.5535e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t |
Schulz-Flory-Verteilung:
3rd Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II., ISBN: 978-3-89746-236-6
For FT kerosene, a Schulz-Flory distribution with a distribution coefficient of alpha = 0.85 was adopted. The following fractions with carbon chain lengths n are aggregated: 8-17.
This results in a diesel fraction of 43.3% for the overall FT crude. The energy and mass requirements listed below correspond to the FT crude.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 6.8015e-7 TWh | 6.1710e-7 TWh | 5.8558e-7 TWh | 5.5405e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | -2.1753e-6 TWh | -2.3014e-6 TWh | -2.4275e-6 TWh | -2.5535e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t |
Schulz-Flory-Verteilung:
3rd Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II., ISBN: 978-3-89746-236-6
D. H. König, „Techno-ökonomische Prozessbewertung der Herstellung synthetischen Flugturbinentreibstoffes aus CO2 und H2“, 2016, doi: 10.18419/OPUS-9043.
For FT napththa, a Schulz-Flory distribution with a distribution coefficient of alpha = 0.75 was adopted. The following fractions with carbon chain lengths n are aggregated: 5-9.
This results in a naphtha fraction of 29.1% for the overall FT crude. The energy and mass requirements listed below correspond to the FT crude.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 6.8015e-7 TWh | 6.1710e-7 TWh | 5.8558e-7 TWh | 5.5405e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | -2.1753e-6 TWh | -2.3014e-6 TWh | -2.4275e-6 TWh | -2.5535e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t | 4.9047e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t | 3.5671e+0 t |
Schulz-Flory-Verteilung:
3rd Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II. Phase II , ISBN: 978-3-89746-236-6
H. Kirsch u. a., „CO2-neutrale Fischer-Tropsch-Kraftstoffe aus dezentralen modularen Anlagen: Status und Perspektiven“, Chemie Ingenieur Technik, Ed. 92, No. 1–2, S. 91–99, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1002/cite.201900120.
The oxygenate fuels included in the potential analysis were investigated as part of the NAMOSYN project - Sustainable Mobility through Synthetic Fuels.
Diesel und Gasoline demands for Germanyin 2020:
Mineralöl Wirtschafts Verband e.V., Jahresbericht 2020, https://en2x.de/service/publikationen/
The syntheses of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo) were simulated by DLR and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the mixture of 65 vol-%. DMC und 35 vol-% MeFo, a weighted average of feedstock and energy demands was adopted.
For the demand calculation, it was assumed that the gasoline demand would be met energetically (for 1 million tons of gasoline, 2.4 million tons of DMC65+MeFo35 would be needed to supply the same amount of energy).
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 2.8386e-1 TWh | 2.8386e-1 TWh | 2.8386e-1 TWh | 2.8386e-1 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 2.3391e+0 TWh | 2.3391e+0 TWh | 2.3391e+0 TWh | 2.3391e+0 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.4318e-1 t | 1.4318e-1 t | 1.4318e-1 t | 1.4318e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.5676e+0 t | 1.5676e+0 t | 1.5676e+0 t | 1.5676e+0 t |
DMC:
Aparna Raghunath, Simon Maier, Atul Bansode, Ralph-Uwe Dietrich, Atsushi Urakawa (2022): Techno-economic analysis of industrial dimethyl carbonate production from CO2 and methanol with 2-cyanopyridine as dehydrant. Manuscript in preparation.
/Contact person: Simon Maier – Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics – German Aerospace Center (DLR)
MeFo:
Yoga Rahmat, Vijay Thormise, Sandra Adelung (2022): Process model for the production of methyl formate based on BASF patent EP2922815B1. Unpublished work.
Contact person: Yoga Rahmat – Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics – German Aerospace Center (DLR)
The synthesis of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was simulated by DLR and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the demand calculation, it was assumed that the gasoline demand would be met energetically (for 1 million tons of gasoline, 1.4 of DMC would be needed to supply the same amount of energy).
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 2.5948e-7 TWh | 2.5948e-7 TWh | 2.5948e-7 TWh | 2.5948e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 2.7915e-6 TWh | 2.7915e-6 TWh | 2.7915e-6 TWh | 2.7915e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.3785e-1 t | 1.3785e-1 t | 1.3785e-1 t | 1.3785e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.5368e+0 t | 1.5368e+0 t | 1.5368e+0 t | 1.5368e+0 t |
Aparna Raghunath, Simon Maier, Atul Bansode, Ralph-Uwe Dietrich, Atsushi Urakawa (2022): Techno-economic analysis of industrial dimethyl carbonate production from CO2 and methanol with 2-cyanopyridine as dehydrant. Manuscript in preparation.
Contact person: Simon Maier – Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics – German Aerospace Center (DLR)
The synthesis of methyl formate (MeFo) was simulated by DLR and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the calculation of demand, it was assumed that an blending of 5 vol% MeFo is added to the total amount of gasoline demanded.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t |
Yoga Rahmat, Vijay Thormise, Sandra Adelung (2022): Process model for the production of methyl formate based on BASF patent EP2922815B1. Unpublished work.
Contact person: Yoga Rahmat – Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics – German Aerospace Center (DLR)
The synthesis of methyl formate (MeFo) was simulated by DLR and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the demand calculation, it was assumed that the gasoline demand would be met energetically (for 1 million tons of gasoline, 1.3 million tons of MeFo would be needed to supply the same amount of energy).
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh | 3.3377e-7 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh | 1.4132e-6 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t | 1.5409e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t | 1.6306e+0 t |
Yoga Rahmat, Vijay Thormise, Sandra Adelung (2022): Process model for the production of methyl formate based on BASF patent EP2922815B1. Unpublished work.
Contact person: Yoga Rahmat – Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics – German Aerospace Center (DLR)
The synthesis of Oxymethylene ether (OME 3-5) was simulated by Fraunhofer ISE and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the demand calculation, it was assumed that the diesel demand would be met energetically (for 1 million tons of diesel, 2.4 million tons of OME 3-5 would be needed to supply the same amount of energy).
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t |
Mass and energy balance of the OME process based on the experimentally validated models on the Aspen Plus simulation platform, developed by the Power to Liquids group at the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE.
Publication: DOI https://doi.org/10.1039/D1SE01270C
The synthesis of Oxymethylene ether (OME 3-5) was simulated by Fraunhofer ISE and the resulting data from the simulations regarding the mass and energy balance were taken for the potential analysis.
For the calculation of demand, it was assumed that an blending of 5 vol% OME 3-5 is added to the total amount of diesel demanded.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh | 3.9219e-6 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh | 7.3177e-7 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t | 1.9142e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t | 1.6915e+0 t |
Mass and energy balance of the OME process based on the experimentally validated models on the Aspen Plus simulation platform, developed by the Power to Liquids group at the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE.
Publication: DOI https://doi.org/10.1039/D1SE01270C
For the synthesis of the polyoxymethylene ether polyols via the pFA-P2X route, methanol is first synthesized from H2 and CO2, which is converted to para-formaldehyde (see sources). The PME polyol is then formed together with propylene oxide.
Only the energy requirements are listed below(Covestro, project partner in Kopernikus P2X), which include hydrogen supply via PEM electrolysis and CO2 capture via air (DAC).
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 3.9060e-6 TWh | 3.6480e-6 TWh | 3.5370e-6 TWh | 3.4260e-6 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 6.8900e-7 TWh | 6.8900e-7 TWh | 6.8900e-7 TWh | 6.8900e-7 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | - t | - t | - t | - t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | - t | - t | - t | - t |
4th Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II, ISBN: 978-3-89746-238-0
This "product" serves as an auxiliary for the calculation of the required water quantities via desalination. From the hydrogen quantities, the energy and mass requirements are calculated "backwards" . The average of multi-scale flash desalination and seawater reverse osmosis are used.
The hydrogen demand per product ton is the reciprocal of the water demand for PEM electrolysis.
| 2020 | 2030 | 2040 | 2050 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity (in TWh) per product (in t) | 4.4550e-9 TWh | 4.4550e-9 TWh | 4.4550e-9 TWh | 4.4550e-9 TWh |
| Heat (in TWh) per produkt (in t) | 3.3379e-8 TWh | 3.3379e-8 TWh | 3.3379e-8 TWh | 3.3379e-8 TWh |
| Hydrogen (in t) per product (in t) | 1.1236e-1 t | 1.1236e-1 t | 1.1236e-1 t | 1.1236e-1 t |
| CO₂ (in t) per product (in t) | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t | 0.0000e+0 t |
1st Roadmap of the Kopernikus project P2X. Phase II, ISBN: 978-3-89746-212-0; Al-Karaghouli, A. and others, "Energy consumption and water production cost of conventional and renewable-energy-powered desalination processes", Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2012), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.12.064